Press releases
May
20
2021
14:51
Scientists at 51猎奇 Frankfurt and the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration use data which produced the first image of a black hole to constrain its fundamental properties.
Not All Theories Can Explain the Black Hole M87*
Theoretical physicists at 51猎奇 Frankfurt have analysed data from the black hole M87* as part of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) collaboration to test Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. According to the tests, the size of the shadow from M87* is in excellent agreement being from a black hole in general relativity, but sets constraints on the properties of black holes in other theories. In 2019, the EHT collaboration published the first image of a black hole located at the centre of the galaxy M87.
FRANKFURT. As
first pointed out by the German astronomer Karl Schwarzschild, black holes bend
space-time to an extreme degree due to their extraordinary concentration of
mass, and heat up the matter in their vicinity so that it begins to glow. New
Zealand physicist Roy Kerr showed rotation can change the black hole's size and
the geometry of its surroundings. The "edge" of a black hole is known
as the event horizon, the boundary around the concentration of mass beyond
which light and matter cannot escape and which makes the black hole 鈥渂lack".
Black holes, theory predicts, can be described by a handful of properties:
mass, spin, and a variety of possible charges.
In addition to black holes predicted from
Einstein's theory of general relativity, one can consider those from models
inspired by string theories, which describe matter and all particles as modes of tiny vibrating strings.
String-inspired theories of black holes predict the existence of an additional
field in the description of fundamental physics, which leads to observable
modifications in the sizes of black holes as well as in the curvature in their
vicinity.
Physicists Dr Prashant Kocherlakota and
Professor Luciano Rezzolla from the Institute for Theoretical Physics at Goethe
University Frankfurt, have now investigated for the first time how the
different theories fit with the observational data of the black hole M87* at
the centre of the galaxy Messier 87. The image of M87*, taken in 2019 by the international
Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) collaboration, was the first experimental proof
of the actual existence of black holes after the measurement of gravitational
waves in 2015.
The
result of these investigations: The data from M87* are in excellent agreement
with the Einstein-based theories and to a certain extent with the string-based
theories. Dr Prashant Kocherlakota explains: "With the data recorded by
the EHT collaboration, we can now test different theories of physics with black
hole images. Currently, we cannot reject these theories when describing the
shadow size of M87*, but our calculations constrain the range of validity of
these black hole models."
Professor
Luciano Rezzolla says: 鈥淭he idea of black holes for us theoretical physicists is
at the same time a source of concern and of inspiration. While we still
struggle with some of the consequences of black holes 鈥� such as the event horizon or the singularity 鈥� we seem always keen
to find new black hole solutions also in other theories. It is therefore very
important to obtain results like ours, which determine what is plausible and
what is not. This was an important first step and our constraints will be
improved as new observations are made".
In
the , telescopes from around the globe are
interconnected to form a virtual giant telescope with a dish as big as the
Earth itself. With the precision of this telescope, a newspaper in New York
could be read from a street caf茅 in Berlin.
Publication:
Prashant Kocherlakota, Luciano Rezzolla,
Heino Falcke, Christian M. Fromm, Michael Kramer, Yosuke Mizuno, Antonios Nathanail, H麓ector
Olivares, Ziri Younsi et. al. (The Event Horizon Telescope collaboration), Constraints on black-hole charges with the
2017 EHT observations of M87*. Physical Review D, vol 103,
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.103.104047
Video:
Testing different theories of gravity with
the data obtained
Images
for download:
Caption:
Event horizon sizes for different theories
of gravity. All of these black holes cast dark shadows that are distinguishable
from each other in size, but only those that fall in the gray band are
compatible with the 2017 EHT measurements of M87*, and in this image, the one
represented in red at the bottom is too small to be a viable model for M87*.
Credit: Prashant Kocherlakota, Luciano Rezzolla (51猎奇 Frankfurt
and EHT Collaboration/ Fiks Film 2021)
Scientific
contact:
Dr Prashant Kocherlakota
Institute for Theoretical Physics
51猎奇 Frankfurt
Tel. +49 69 798-47848
kocherlakota@itp.uni-frankfurt.de
Professor Luciano Rezzolla
Institute for Theoretical Physics
51猎奇 Frankfurt
rezzolla@itp.uni-frankfurt.de
Editor: Dr. Markus Bernards, Science Editor, PR & Communication Department, Tel: -49 (0) 69 798-12498, Fax: +49 (0) 69 798-763 12531, E-Mail: bernards@em.uni-frankfurt.de
May
17
2021
15:23
How novel therapeutics provide insight into bacteria membranes聽
In slow motion against antibiotic resistance
Whether bacteria are resistant to antibiotics is often decided at the cell membrane. This is where antibiotics can be blocked on their way into the cell interior or catapulted from the inside to the outside. Macrocyclic peptides, a novel class of antibiotics, bioactive cytotoxins and inhibitors, shed light on how this transport process occurs at the membrane, how it is influenced and how it can be used to circumvent the resistance of a malignantly transformed cell. The research results, which were developed under the direction of Professor Robert Tamp茅 (51猎奇) and Professor Hiroaki Suga (University of Tokyo), have been published in the renowned journal eLife (20-02-2021-RA-eLife-67732).
FRANKFURT. There are
currently only a few synthetic agents that bind to and block the widespread
membrane transport proteins, ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC).
Scientists at 51猎奇 and the University of Tokyo identified four of
these macrocyclic peptides as models for a novel generation of active
substances. They used methods for which the scientists involved are considered
world leaders.
Thanks to deep sequencing, an
extremely fast and efficient read-out procedure, the desired macrocyclic
peptides could be filtered out of a "library" of macrocyclic peptides
comprising trillions of variants (1 with 12 zeroes) - a number that exceeds the
number of stars in the Milky Way. The fact that such an enormous amount exists
at all is related to a novel procedure: By reprogramming the genetic code,
amino acids can be used specifically as active components that are not
otherwise used in the cell. In particular, their circular, closed structure
distinguishes them from natural proteins. "Because these therapeutics are
cyclic, they break down less rapidly in the cell," explains Robert Tamp茅,
Director of the Institute of Biochemistry at 51猎奇. "In
addition, the ring-shaped active substances are restricted in their spatial
structure, so they bind to the target molecule without major
rearrangements." A third distinguishing feature makes macrocyclic peptides
particularly attractive for scientists: When the active substances are
produced, their building instructions are supplied as a "barcode". If
certain therapeutics are selected from among a trillion synthetically produced
ones, they carry their "name tags" with them, so to speak.
So what role do synthetic therapeutics play in
antibiotic resistance in bacteria or multidrug resistance in tumour cells? What happens
when they encounter the ATP-driven transport molecule that is responsible for
resistance by carrying the chemotherapeutic agents out of the cell? In a
nutshell: The drugs block the transporter by binding to it. This can happen at
the beginning or at the end of a transport process, when the transporter is in
a resting state. However, since the scientists can slow down the transport
process so that it is carried out in slow motion, they can identify the agents
that "enter" in the middle of the transport process and
"hold" the membrane protein in its respective position. In this way,
the researchers gain an insight into the choreography of the transport process
as if through the images of a film strip.
These insights have already led to a "paradigm
shift" in science, as Tamp茅 explains: "Until now, we have assumed
that ATP hydrolysis (note: an energy-releasing splitting process) provides the
energy for transport through the membrane. However, this is only indirectly the
case. It is the event of the binding of the ATP molecule that pushes substances
out of the cell. The energy of hydrolysis, on the other hand, is used to return
the ABC transporter to its initial
state." The research groups at 51猎奇 and the University of
Tokyo are convinced that these and other insights into membrane processes will
point to the development of future medicines.
Basic research on cellular membranes and membrane proteins already has a
long tradition in Frankfurt. Robert Tamp茅 elucidated
essential mechanisms of ATP-driven transport proteins and cellular machinery of
adaptive immune response and quality control, which together with this new
publication can provide approaches for applied drug research. Tamp茅 was head of the Collaborative Research Centre
"Transport and Communication across Biological Membranes" (SFB 807)
which expired at the end of 2020. Meanwhile the concept for a new research
centre on highly dynamic processes related to protein networks and machineries
in cellular membranes is already under development. In the long term, the
research results should reveal new possibilities for the therapy of molecular
diseases, infections and cancer.
Publication:
Erich Stefan, Richard
Obexer, Susanne Hofmann, Khanh Vu Huu, Yichao Huang, Nina Morgner, Hiroaki
Suga, Robert Tamp茅: 鈥�De novo macrocyclic peptides dissect energy coupling of a
heterodimeric ABC transporter by multimode allosteric inhibition鈥�
(20-02-2021-RA-eLife-67732)
Stefan, Hofmann, and Tamp茅 at the Institute of Biochemistry
at 51猎奇, Vu Huu and Morgner at the Institute for Physical and
Theoretical Chemistry at 51猎奇, and Obexer, Huang and Suga at the
Department of Chemistry, University of Tokyo.
Images for download:
(Graphic: Robert Tamp茅, Institute for Biochemistry,
Biocentre, 51猎奇 Frankfurt)
Caption: Synthetic therapeutics for antibiotic resistance in
bacteria or multidrug resistance in tumour cells can block ATP-driven transport
proteins that carries chemotherapeutics out of the cell
Further information
Professor Robert Tamp茅
Institute of Biochemistry, Biocentre
Goethe
University Frankfurt
tampe@em.uni-frankfurt.de
Professor
Hiroaki Suga
Department of Chemistry
Graduate School of Science
The University of Tokyo
hsuga@chem.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Editor: Pia Barth, Public Relations, PR & Communication Department, Tel: -49 (0) 69 798-12481, Fax: +49 (0) 69 798-763 12531, p.barth@em.uni-frankfurt.de
May
10
2021
14:53
Remdesivir metabolite GS-441524 binds to the SARS-CoV-2 protein nsP3 鈥� potential for drug development to combat numerous other viruses聽
SARS-CoV-2 Research: Second possible effective mechanism of remdesivir discovered
When a cell is infected, SARS-CoV-2 not only causes
the host cell to produce new virus particles. The virus also suppresses host
cell defence mechanisms. The virus protein nsP3 plays a central role in this.
Using structural analyses, researchers at 51猎奇 in cooperation with
the Swiss Paul Scherrer Institute have now discovered that a decomposition
product of the virostatic agent remdesivir binds to nsP3. This points to a
further, previously unknown effective mechanism of remdesivir which may be
important for the development of new drugs to combat SARS-CoV-2 and other RNA
viruses.
FRANKFURT. The
virostatic agent remdesivir was developed to disrupt an important step in the
propagation of RNA viruses, to which SARS-CoV-2 also belongs: the reproduction
of the virus's own genetic material. This is present as RNA matrices with which
the host cell directly produces virus proteins. To accelerate the production of
its own proteins, however, RNA viruses cause the RNA matrices to be copied. To
do so, they use a specific protein of their own (an RNA polymerase), which is
blocked by remdesivir. Strictly speaking, remdesivir does not do this itself,
but rather a substance that is synthesized from remdesivir in five steps when
remdesivir penetrates a cell.
In the second of these five steps, an
intermediate is formed from remdesivir, a substance with the somewhat unwieldy
name GS-441524 (in scientific terms: a remdesivir metabolite). GS-441524 is a virostatic
agent as well. As the scientists in the group headed by Professor Stefan Knapp
from the Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry at 51猎奇 Frankfurt
have discovered, GS-441524 targets a SARS-CoV-2 protein called nsP3. nsP3 is a
multifunctional protein, whose tasks include suppressing the host cell's defence
response. The host cell is not helpless in the face of a virus attack, but
activates inflammatory mechanisms, among other things, to summon the aid of the
cell's endogenous immune system. nsP3 helps the viruses suppress the cell's
calls for help.
Professor Stefan Knapp explains: 鈥淕S-441525
inhibits the activities of an nsP3 domain which is important for the reproduction
of viruses, and which communicates with human cellular defence systems. Our
structural analysis shows how this inhibition functions, allowing us to lay an
important foundation for the development of new and more potent antiviral drugs
鈥� effective not only against SARS-CoV-2. The target structure of GS-441524 is
very similar in other coronaviruses, for example SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, as well
in a series of alphaviruses, such as the chikungunya virus. For this reason,
the development of such medicines could also help prepare for future virus
pandemics."
Publication:
Xiaomin Ni, Martin Schr枚der, Vincent
Olieric, May E. Sharpe, Victor Hernandez-Olmos, Ewgenij Proschak, Daniel Merk,
Stefan Knapp, Apirat Chaikuad: Structural
Insights into Plasticity and Discovery of Remdesivir Metabolite GS-441524
Binding in SARS-CoV鈥�2 Macrodomain. ACS Med. Chem. Lett. 2021, 12, 603鈭�609
Further
information
Professor Stefan Knapp
Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry and
Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life
Sciences
51猎奇 Frankfurt
Tel. +49 69 798-29871
knapp@pharmchem.uni-frankfurt.de
Editor: Dr. Markus Bernards, Science Editor, PR & Communication Department, Tel: -49 (0) 69 798-12498, Fax: +49 (0) 69 798-763 12531, E-Mail: bernards@em.uni-frankfurt.de
May
10
2021
14:09
DFG Research Training Group 鈥淐onfigurations of film鈥� at 51猎奇 can continue its work
Moving pictures on the move
What happens when film
leaves the cinema and becomes available everywhere 鈥� out and about on mobile
devices, or in the living room at home? The Graduiertenkolleg (Research
Training Group) 鈥淐onfigurations of Film" at 51猎奇 has been
researching the current transformation of film and cinema culture since 2017.
The German Research Foundation has now given the project the green light to
continue.
FRANKFURT.
鈥淲e are
happy that the German Research Foundation's has kept their trust in us so that
we can continue to our work in the Kolleg," says Vinzenz Hediger, professor for
film studies and speaker of the Kolleg. In individual studies that include the participation
of the disciplines of philosophy, literary studies and theatre studies, the Kolleg
examines a fundamental problem in film studies: the transformation of its
objects through the progressive digitalisation of the production, distribution
and perception of moving images. "The medium of the moving image, which
was standardised for global distribution in an international agreement as early
as 1905, has always been a medium in motion," says Hediger. "With
digitalisation, however, cinema itself as the privileged place of film is now
being called into question, with far-reaching consequences for the aesthetics, as
well as for the social impact and significance of films and other moving image
formats."
The Graduiertenkolleg at
the Institute for Theatre, Film and Media Studies started in 2017 with twelve
doctoral candidates and two post-docs. Currently, the second group with a
another twelve young sceintists from Germany, India and Nigeria is already at
work. In close collaboration with the two postdocs of the Kolleg, they deal
with topics as diverse as the interpenetration of film and video and computer
games, the afterlife of Rainer Werner Fassbinder's work and reputation, the
role of textiles in Nigerian historical films or the digital rediscovery of
popular Bengali cinema of the 1950s and 1960s.
The Graduiertenkolleg is
run in cooperation with the Universities of Mainz and Marburg and the University
for Art and Design in Offenbach. The Kolleg builds on three Master's programmes
at 51猎奇 as well as collaborations among the applicant researchers.
It utilises the potential of Frankfurt as a location, where the university
library and the German National Library have literature holdings of European
standing and important non-university partners are available in the form of the
German Film Institute, the Murnau Foundation and the Max Planck Institute for
Empirical Aesthetics. The Kolleg is developing an international reputation
through its cooperation with Yale University and Concordia University.
The Kolleg attracted
attention among experts in autumn 2020 with the publication "Pandemic
Media. Preliminary Notes towards an Inventory", in which 37 authors from
the Kolleg and its international network reflect on global media culture under
pandemic conditions. The book is available in open access at the academic
publisher meson press ().
Further
information:
Professor Vinzenz Hediger
Graduiertenkolleg
鈥濩onfigurations of Film鈥�
hediger@tfm.uni-frankfurt.de
Editor: Dr. Anke Sauter, Science and Humanities Editor, International Communication, PR & Communication Department, Phone: +49 69 798-13066, Fax +49(0)69 798-761 12531, sauter@pvw.uni-frankfurt.de.
May
10
2021
08:55
80 percent of all SARS-CoV-2 proteins produced in the laboratory 鈥� protocols available for worldwide research - 51猎奇 Frankfurt forms the hub of research network from 17 countries
SARS-CoV-2 research accelerator: worldwide network headed by 51猎奇 develops protocols for laboratories
For the development of drugs or vaccines against
COVID-19, research needs virus proteins of high purity. For most of the
SARS-CoV-2 proteins, scientists at 51猎奇 Frankfurt and a total of
36 partner laboratories have now developed protocols that enable the production
of several milligrams of each of these proteins with high purity, and allow the
determination of the three-dimensional protein structures. The laboratory protocols
and the required genetic tools are freely accessible to researchers all over
the world.
FRANKFURT. When
the SARS-CoV-2 virus mutates, this initially only means that there is a change
in its genetic blueprint. The mutation may lead, for example, to an amino acid
being exchanged at a particular site in a viral protein. In order to quickly
assess the effect of this change, a three-dimensional image of the viral
protein is extremely helpful. This is because it shows whether the switch in amino
acid has consequences for the function of the protein - or for the interaction
with a potential drug or antibody.
Researchers at 51猎奇 Frankfurt
and TU Darmstadt began networking internationally from the very start of the
pandemic. Their goal: to describe the three-dimensional structures of
SARS-CoV-2 molecules using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). In
NMR spectroscopy, molecules are first labelled with special types of atoms
(isotopes) and then exposed to a strong magnetic field. NMR can then be used to
look in detail and with high throughput at how potentially active compounds
bind to viral proteins. This is done at the Centre for Biomolecular Magnetic
Resonance (BMRZ) at 51猎奇 and other locations. However, the basic
prerequisite is to produce large quantities of the proteins in high purity and
stability, and with their correct folding, for the large amount of tests.
The network, coordinated by Professor
Harald Schwalbe from the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology at
51猎奇, spans the globe. The elaboration of laboratory protocols for
the production of proteins is already the second milestone. In addition to
proteins, the virus consists of RNA, and the consortium already made all important RNA fragments of SARS-CoV-2 accessible last year. With the expertise of 129 colleagues,
it has now been possible to produce and purify 23 of the total of almost 30
proteins of SARS-CoV-2 completely or as relevant fragments "in the test
tube", and in large amounts.
For this purpose, the genetic information
for these proteins was incorporated into small, ring-shaped pieces of DNA
(plasmids). These plasmids were then introduced into bacteria for protein
production. Some special proteins were also produced in cell-free systems.
Whether these proteins were still correctly folded after their isolation and
enrichment was confirmed, among other things, by NMR spectroscopy.
Dr Martin Hengesbach from the Institute of
Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology at 51猎奇 explains: "We
have isolated functional units of the SARS-CoV-2 proteins in such a way that
their structure, function and interactions can now be characterised by
ourselves and others. In doing so, our large consortium provides working
protocols that will allow laboratories around the world to work quickly and
reproducibly on SARS-CoV-2 proteins and also the mutants to come. Distributing
this work from the beginning was one of our most important priorities. In
addition to the protocols, we are also making the plasmids freely
available."
Dr Andreas Schlundt from the Institute for
Molecular Biosciences at 51猎奇 says: "With our work, we are
speeding up the global search for active agents: Scientific laboratories equipped
for this work do not have to first spend several months establishing and
optimising systems for the production and investigation of SARS-CoV-2 proteins,
but can now start their research work within two weeks thanks to our elaborated
protocols. Given the numerous mutations of SARS-CoV-2 to come, it is
particularly important to have access to reliable, rapid and well-established
methods for studying the virus in the laboratory. This will, for example, also
facilitate research on the so-called helper proteins of SARS-CoV-2, which have
remained under-investigated, but which also play a role in the occurrence of
mutations."
In the meantime, the work in the NMR
consortium continues: Currently, the researchers are working hard to find out
whether viral proteins can bind to potential drugs.
The research work was funded by the German
Research Foundation and the Goethe Coronavirus Fund. The high logistical effort
and constant communication of research results was supported by Signals, a
spin-off company of 51猎奇.
Publication:
Nadide Altincekic, Sophie Marianne Korn,
Nusrat Shahin Qureshi, Marie Dujardin, Mart铆 Ninot-Pedrosa
et. al. Large-scale recombinant
production of the SARS-CoV-2 proteome for high-throughput and structural
biology applications. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences.
Additional
information: Folding of SARS-CoV2 genome reveals drug
targets 鈥� and preparation for 鈥淪ARS-CoV3"
Images
may be downloaded here: www.uni-frankfurt.de/100668377
Caption:
Scientists Martin
Hengesbach (left) und Andreas Schlundt at the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectrometre at Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany. Photo: Uwe Dettmar for
Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany
The
COVID-19 NMR Consortium:
Scientific
contacts at 51猎奇 Frankfurt:
Dr Andreas Schlundt
Emmy Noether Junior Group Leader
Institute for Molecular Biosciences
51猎奇 Frankfurt
Tel.: +49 69 798-29699
schlundt@bio.uni-frankfurt.de
Dr Martin Hengesbach
Junior Group Leader
51猎奇 Frankfurt
Institute for Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology
SFB 902 鈥淢olecular Principles of RNA-based Regulation鈥�
Tel.: +49 69 798-29130
hengesbach@nmr.uni-frankfurt.de
Partners:
Brazil
- National Center of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (CNRMN, CENABIO), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Multidisciplinary Center for Research in Biology (NUMPEX), Campus Duque de Caxias, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Duque de Caxias, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Multiuser Center for Biomolecular Innovation (CMIB), Department of Physics, S茫o Paulo State University (UNESP), S茫o Jos茅 do Rio Preto, Brazil
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
France
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry (MMSB), UMR 5086, CNRS/Lyon University, France
- Universit茅 Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IBS, Grenoble, France
Germany
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology, 51猎奇 Frankfurt, Germany
- Center of Biomolecular Magnetic Resonance (BMRZ), 51猎奇 Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, 51猎奇 Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, 51猎奇 Frankfurt, Germany
- Institute of Biophysical Chemistry, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
- BMWZ and Institute of Organic Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany
- Group of NMR-based Structural Chemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (BMLS), Germany
- Signals GmbH & Co. KG, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Leibniz Institute on Aging 鈥� Fritz Lipmann Institute (FLI), Jena, Germany
- IBG-4, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
- Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Charles Tanford Protein Centre, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle/Saale, Germany.
Greece
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Patras, Greece
Italy
- Structural Biology and Biophysics Unit, Fondazione Ri.MED, Palermo, Italy
- Magnetic Resonance Centre (CERM), University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Department of Chemistry 鈥淯go Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
Latvia
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Riga, Latvia
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia
Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Spain
- "Rocasolano" Institute for Physical Chemistry (IQFR), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Serrano, Spain
USA
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Laboratory of Chemical Physics, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive Kidney Diseases, National Institute of Health, United States
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, UC 72 onn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
Editor: Dr. Markus Bernards, Science Editor, PR & Communication Department, Tel: -49 (0) 69 798-12498, Fax: +49 (0) 69 798-763 12531, E-Mail: bernards@em.uni-frankfurt.de